Part 3: Studio acoustics and design

Part 3: Studio acoustics and design

Probably the most important consideration when building a studio is the acoustics and sound design of the recording studio.  

A good studio must have acoustic isolation: This prevents noises from transmitting through the structure of the building into the studio environment.  

Frequency balance: The frequency components of a room shouldn't adversely affect the acoustic balance of an instrument.  and/or the speakers.

Acoustic separation:  The acoustic environment should not interfere with any of the other acoustic environments.  

Reverberation:  The control of sonic reflections within a space is important for maximizing intelligibility of a sound.  

Studio Types

Although the basic function is the same in all of the types of music studios, differences will often follow the form, function, and budgets of the task at hand.  Some of the most common types of studio types include:

Professional music studios

Audio-for-visual production studios

project studios

Portable studios

All of these studios will vary in size and function 

The Project studio

The majority of production studios fall into this category. The function is usually for an artist to have a personal production studio.  Generally, a production studio is boult into an artist's home.

Part 2 addendum 

Reverberation

I feel that it is important to talk about reverberation as it is key to all of sound.  Reverb is when a wave bounces off of a solid surface  and hits our ear multiple times.  simply, it looks like this:

see all of the reflected arrows on the top of the diagram?  that is the reverberated sound.  and the observer will hear those reflected sound waves at a different time than the initial sound wave labeled "direct sound. 

Part 2: Sound and hearing

Part 2: Sound and hearing

The Basics of Sound

Sound arrives at the ear in form of periodic variations in atmospheric pressure called sound-pressure waves.  When these waves hit your eardrum, the signal travels to your brain where it is then interpreted as sound.

All waves have seven characteristics.  These characteristics are:
•Amplitude
•Frequency
•Velocity
•Wavelength
•Phase
•Harmonic content
•Envelope

Amplitude

Amplitude can be described as how loud a sound is.  In technical terms, this is how far away from zero a wave travels.  In this example of a sine wave, the bold line that travels through the wave is zero decibels.  The amplitude, Frequency, and Wavelength are labeled in this example.  Amplitude is the distance above and below the centerline of the waveform.  

Frequency

Frequency is how often the waveform repeats.  You can see that for simplicity, I have labeled the peaks of the wave.  Every time that a peak occurs, is one wavelength (one can measure wavelength from any point on the waveform.  But for simplicity, I have chosen the peaks of the waveform.  The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.   

Velocity

Velocity is how fast a wave travels through a medium (such as air).  Many experiments have been done, and we know that sound travels through air at approximately 1130 feet per second.  The temperature of the air and medium affects greatly the speed of a wave.  A wave will travel through cold air slower than it will through warm air.  

Wavelength 

The wavelength of a waveform (represented by the greek lambda λ)  is the physical distance in a medium between the beginning and end of one cycle.  

It is calculated using:

λ=V

     f

Where V is the velocity and f is frequency

Phase

Because a cycle can begin at any point on a waveform, it follows that whenever two or more waveforms are involved, their relative amplitudes can, and often will be different at any one point in time.    In this case, the two waveforms will be added to each other to create a louder sound than originally.   

Notice that the two waves on the right are perfectly in phase with each other, thus their amplitudes are added to each other making the overall wave twice as loud.  On the right, however, the two waves are perfectly out of phase with each other, thus the resulting wave is nothing.  This is extremely difficult to do in nature 

Harmonic content

Up to this point, all we have discussed was the sine wave, which is a pure tone without harmonic content.  The sine wave is made up of a single frequency that produces sound at a specific pitch.  Musical instruments create what are called harmonics that give it its unique sound as an instrument.  For example, a guitar has different harmonic content from an oboe, or a violin.  

Envelope

Each noise has what is called an envelope.  An envelope is defined as a unique difference in amplitude from onset to release of a noise.  Each sound has four distinct stages in the envelope.  These stages are: 

•Attach

•Decay

•Sustain

•Release

Part 1: Introduction

Part 1:  Introduction

The Recording Studio

A commercial studio is made up of one or more acoustic spaces to ensure the best possible capture of sound for each instrument.  There may be separate rooms for each instrument in some higher end studios.  This is to ensure the best quality recording possible.

For example, the room that best suits the recording of a guitar is not the room that best suits the recording of a piano.

The control room
Ideally the studio's control room is acoustically isolated from the studio.  As well as the surrounding areas.
The console (or board) can be thought of as the recording artist's canvas for the recording engineer.  This room also houses the recording, effects, and control equipment.

Live/On-Location Recording
Unlike the traditional multitrack recording environment where overdubs are often used, in on-location recording is created in realtime.

The recording Process
The recording process is as follows:
1. Preparation
2. Recording
3. Overdubbing
4. Mixdown
5. Mastering
6. Product Manufacture


In the Preparation Phase these are the the following must be addressed:
•What is the goal?
•What is the budget?
•What is the estimated studio costs?
•Do we have enough money?
•How much will it cost to manufacture CDs?
What are the advertising costs?
•How will we sell our music and to whom?
•Have we practiced enough?
•Are our instruments, voices and heads ready for the task ahead?
•are there any legal issues to consider?

Recording
The first phase in the multitrack production process is recording.  This is where one or more sound sources is picked up by a microphone and recorded to a device (weather that be a reel to reel machine, or computer).

Reel to Reel

ProTools

In general, audio recording looks like this:

And that is a general overview of audio engineering.

New series!

Soon I will undertake a new series.  In this new series, I will be teaching audio engineering, and all of the technical side of music production.  Stay tuned!

Apologies

I do apologize for the infrequency of updates during the past few months.  School takes precedence over everything.   Now that the semester is over, I plan on posting more often.

Counterpoint Lession 12: further rhythmic diminution; Three voice chorale prelude

further rhythmic diminution;  Three voice chorale prelude

Part I - Further Rhythmic Diminution
Here, it is possible to have 3:1, 4:1, and even up to 6:1 rhythmic diminutions.  Often this takes the form of eighth or sixteenth notes against a dotted half, or half note.

Part II - Three-voice Chorale Preludes
Organ chorale preludes are often in four voices, although some have only three.  Most often the highest voice is the cantus, playing the melody.  And the lowest voice is a diminished note value of the cantus (usually twice as long)  meaning that the lowest voice is the exact same as the cantus but playing it at a longer note value. 
The inner voice of the chorale prelude uses imitation and diminution to provide counterpoint to the other two voices.   
Here is a three voice chorale prelude by Johann Kuhnau.  Listen for the entrance of each voice.  And notice that the lowest voice is hust an elongated version of the cantus.

Counterpoint Lession 11: Introduction to three-voice texture

 Introduction to three-voice texture

Part I - Note Against Note with Consonance Only

With three voice texture, one can have full chords (root, third, and fifth).  The rules of voice leading were followed meticulously during the Baroque era.  Rarely does one see irregular doubling, or even non-harmonic chords. 

Remember that when in the Baroque era a piece was in a minor mode, the final chord of the piece would be Major.  This is because of the temperament system used in the Baroque era.  It was about this time that all instruments were being tuned to the same standard.  In three note texture, rarely were there dissonances. 

Here we will look at three voice note-against-note texture and simple diminution.  All of the voice leading practices studied in theory apply here. To review, avoid doubling altered tones and the leading tone

Part II - elaboration in three voices

It is possible to elaborate up to two voices at a time in three voice texture.  Baroque composers use many of the non-harmonic tones discussed in the theory lessons on non-harmonic tones.  Most common by far though is the pedal tone.  This is because the pipe organ was beginning to gain popularity among composers.  Most of the time, the pattern is 2:1, 3:1, and even 4:1.  Rarely does one see higher than 4:1 in three voice texture.  

Good news!  I will have my computer back soon!  Then I can post the rest of the theory lessons.

Counterpoint Lession 10: The two part canon and invention

The two part canon and invention

Part I -  Two-part canon
As mentioned in earlier lessons from  Form and analysis, Canon in D by Pachalbel is NOT a canon because it does not follow the structure of canon form.  Canon  follows strict rules of imitation.  It stretches beyond restatement of the theme in a second voice.  The leading voice of a canon is called the dux, and the following voice the comes.  In two voice canon, the intervals of imitation are usually Perfect (unisons, 4ths, 5ths, and octaves). 

Here, is an example of canon in Corelli's Sonata No.7 in d minor.
notice that the dux enters at the octave.

part II - The two-part Invention
J.S. Bach wrote all of his inventions to be used for teaching pieces.  Inventions are written in canon form, with a dux, and a comes as the two voices.  The invention uses sequences to modulate between EPISODES (points where the theme returns in a different tonal center.  A typical invention will have four or five episodes before modulating back to the tonic before the final cadence.

Here is a Bach two-part invention, notice the use of sequences to modulate between episodes.

Counterpoint Lession 9: Real imitation and double counterpoint

 Real imitation and double counterpoint

Part I - Real imitation at the Octave and Fifth
Counterpoint at the Octave and fifth is just as the name suggests.  the first voice  states the theme, and the second voice imitates that same melody at either a fifth or octave away from the first melody.  Here is the first page of Bach's Two-part Invention in C.

Notice that the second voice imitates the cantus at  the octave.  The first voice begins on C, as does the second.  This is by far the most common form of counterpoint.  Of course, Imitation at the fifth does exist.  This is exemplified in Bach's Two-Part Invention in G
Here is the first page of the piece. 

Notice that the counterpointing voice imitates the cantus at the fifth.  The first voice begins on G, and the second on D. 

Part II - Double Counterpoint at the Octave
It is possible to have two voices imitate each other at the octave while a third voice imitates at the fifth or sixth.  This is known at double counterpoint.

Counterpoint Lession 8: further Diminution techniques in two voice texture

Further Diminution Techniques in two Voice Texture

Part I - sequences

As a Baroque technique, the sequence plays a huge part in counterpoint.  It is by definition one-voice imitation.  Observe the soprano voice in this figure, notice that it has the ascending eighth note figure.  This is known as a sequence.

Fig.1 Sequence

Notice that the first note of each group of eighth notes ascends by step.  This is the simplest example of a sequence.  further elaboration can be added, of course.  

Part II - Figuration Preludes

There are instances of further diminution where one voice outlines the chords of the the other voices, either by arpeggios, or other techniques.  the figure of: root - third - fifth - root is a good example of sequencing, because one voice will play root - third - fifth - root on each chord of the progression.  Doing so is known as a Figuration Prelude.

Here is the Bach Prelude in C BWV 924. it demonstrates arpeggiation in the counterpointing voice.  

Counterpoint Lession 7: Free counterpoint

Free counterpoint

Part I - Free Counterpoint
Free counterpoint combines all the other species into one.  In this type of counterpoint, one is able to have note-against-note, two against one, three against one, and four against one.  Although not as common, it is possible to have two against three, and three against four.

Fig.1 Free counterpoint

Notice that there exists 3:1 and 2:3, as well as 2:1 in this example. 

Part II - Simple two-reprise Form

Also known as binary form, This most commonly exists as simple dance movements, Such as gigues¹ or sarabandes².  Two-reprise pieces most commonly exist in sixteen, or twenty-four measures, The layout of the piece often looks like this:

||:8 measures:||:8 measures:||    and       ||:8 measures:||:16 measures:||
       Tonic                     Dominant                                             Tonic                      Dominant
Even though the piece modulates for the second part, the overall feel of the piece does not shift (i.e. major/minor, tempo, etc.)  Although the general feel of a piece does not change, it is  normal to see a piece change tonality between the two sections.To facilitate this shift, the last measure of each section often tonicizes to the new tonic of the next section.  Like this:

Major:                                                       minor:
||:I             V(iii):||        ||:i              v(V, or III):||

An example of the simple two-reprise form can be found in Bach's Minuet in d minor, BVW Anh.132

 

Notice that in the second part, the tonality shifts in the second part of the piece.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________
<sup>1. Gigue:  A lively dance piece of the Baroque and Renaissance, usually in compound meter. 
2. Sarabande:  A dance movement in triple meter (most commonly3/4, 6/8, and even 9/8)</sup> 

Counterpoint Lession 3: General characteristics of counterpoint

General characteristics of counterpoint

Part I - foundations of Baroque polyphony
The Baroque period especially had strict rules for consonance and dissonance. composers in the Baroque era learned the techniques of the preceding Renaissance.  Early Baroque music was simple, only two voices.  Usually in the form of instrumental music.  Most often, this early Baroque music was not-against-note.  There was sometimes simple elaborations in the melody lines. If a passage was repeated, it was understood that the second time should be highly embellished.

Counterpoint Lesson 2: Melody

Lesson 2:  Melody

 

Part I - Tempo, Meter, and Phrasing
During the Baroque era, all of these aspects would remain unchanged throughout the course of the piece.  i.e. if a piece began in a minor key, it remained so for the entirety of the piece.  Tempos rarely changed in the middle of a piece either.

Part II - Vocal instrumental cross influence
Often in Baroque music, vocal music imitated instrumental music.  And vice versa. 

Part III - Features of Baroque Melody
The biggest distinguishing feature of Baroque melody is the idea of devolping melodies and counter-melodies.  Many times in music before the Baroque era, melodies were not developed or expanded on.  At least not often.  Another big feature of Baroque music is the idea of sequences.

 Fig.1 sequence

Notice that in the upper voice, there is an ascending figure of four eighth notes.  This is known as a sequence, and is extremely common in Baroque music. 

Counterpoint Lession 6: further diminutuion

 further diminution

Part I - Further contrapuntal diminution

The slower moving cantus, is often elaborated to bring out the accompanying counterpoint.  It is often 3:1, or 4:1 (three notes against one, and four notes against one). Instances of 'free' rhythmic counterpoint is also often.  Shown here is an example of third species counterpoint.

Fig.1 third species counterpoint.

Notice that there are four notes against one in third species.  In fourth species, also known as free counterpoint, there are instances of upwards of ten notes against one.  

Here, in fourth species counterpoint, there are combinations of all of the other species.  This is by far the most common type of counterpoint.

Notice that the first note of each group of four sixteenth notes ascends by step, just as the quarter notes do in the cantus.

Part II - the two-voice Chorale Prelude

Using a German chorale tune as the cantus firmus formed much of the vocal repertoire in the Baroque period.  Here in this chorale prelude, the tune "Wachet auf ruft un die stimme" is used as the cantus firmus.  

 

Counterpoint Lession 5:simple diminution

simple diminution

Part I - Diminution with consonant intervals

Elaboration in the counterpointing voice can be consonant skips or step wise motion.  

 Fig.1 simple diminution

Notice that in the example, there are places where one voice moves and the other does not.  This is still first species counterpoint.  

Part II - diminution with dissonant intervals

The treatment of dissonance in the Baroque era always involves step wise motion.  The dissonance always falls on or before the weak beat.  

Fig.2 diminution with dissonant intervals.

Diminution with dissonant intervals falls into three categories:  non-harmonic tones, suspensions, and chordal dissonance.  Chordal dissonance is just a dissonant chord, such as a seventh chord.  

Part III - suspensions

A suspension is an accented dissonance, or a dissonance that falls on an accented beat.  

Part IV - Chordal dissonance

The use of seventh chords are the most common type of chordal dissonance during the Baroque era.  

Counterpoint Lession 4: Two voice note-against-note counterpoint

 Two voice note-against-note counterpoint

By far the simplest form of counterpoint.  This is because there is only two voices  that move in tandem.  

Fig.1 first species counterpoint

You can see that there are only two voices and they sing/play at the same time as the other.  Most of the time, if not all of the time, in Baroque music, the composer will only use diatonic intervals.  Chromatic intervals were treated as to dissonant and dealt with in very specific ways.  The most harmonically-unstable interval (by Baroque definitions) is the tritone.  The tritone is the interval of an augmented fourth, or diminished fifth.  Baroque composers thought of this interval as evil because it is made up of six half-steps.

  Fig.2 Tritones

Just remember that in first species counterpoint that there are only two voices that move in tandem.  This creates a series of intervals and the intervals usually do follow the circle of fifths progression (I iii VI ii V I).  

Counterpoint Lesson 1: Introduction

Introduction to Counterpoint

Counterpoint- The art or technique of setting, writing, or playing a melody or melodies in conjunction with another, according to fixed rules.

Part I - Doctrine of Affections
The doctrine of the affections, also known as the doctrine of affects, doctrine of the passions, theory of the affects, or by the German term Affektenlehre (after the German Affekt; plural Affekte) was a theory in musical aesthetics popular in the Baroque era (1600–1750). It derived from ancient theories of rhetoric and oratory (Buelow 2001), and was widely accepted by late-Baroque theorists and composers. The essential idea is that just one unified and "rationalized" Affekt should be aimed at by any single piece or movement of music, and that to attempt more was to risk confusion and disorder.
According to one version of the theory there are three pairs of opposing emotions that make six "affects" all together: love/hate, joy/sorrow, wonder/desire. Another authority also mentions sadness, anger, and jealousy (Buelow 2001).
Lorenzo Giacomini (1552–1598) in his Orationi e discorsi (1597) defined an affection as "a spiritual movement or operation of the mind in which it is attracted or repelled by an object it has come to know as a result of an imbalance in the animal spirits and vapours that flow continually throughout the body" (Giacomini 1597,).
The doctrine fell out of use in the Classical era, when composers and theorists began to find it excessively mechanical and unnatural.
"Affections are not the same as emotions; however, they are a spiritual movement of the mind" (Palisca 1991, 3).
A prominent Baroque proponent of the Doctrine of the Affections was Johann Mattheson (Poultney 1996, 107).

Part II - Texture
The texture is countrapuntal.  Meaning that There is a melody and one or more counter-melodies.

Fig.1 melody and counter-melody

As seen here, the treble clef has the melody and the Bass clef has the counter-melody.  The idea of two or more voices that move at different intervals of time is counterpoint.  

Formal innovations in Twentieth-Century Music

Formal innovations in Twentieth-Century Music

Part I - New pitch Materials and Form
Claude Debussy is considered one of the founders of modern music.  His treatment of tonality and harmony.  He used many tertian¹ harmonies, but avoided cadences and progressions.  Debussy's approach to melody, harmony, rhythm, and texture resulted in new approaches to form.  Principals of repitition, contrast, variation, and restatement remained, but there was an absence of tonal syntax.

Part II - New pitch materials, Transposition, and Traditional form
Hungarian composer Bela Bartok drew from a wide range of styles, most notably folk songs. Dissonance² and chromaticism are among the most widely used techniques used in his music.  He often used the octatonic scale. here is an example of an octatonic scale:

Fig.1 octatonic scale on Eb.

With this new scale, it is difficult to build triads, so often quartal harmonies are used.  That is harmonies built on the interval of a fourth instead of a third.  This creates a distinct dissonant harmony in the piece.  Bartok's "Mikrocosomos" is a prime example of where he uses the octatonic scale as the basis of a piece.  

Part III - Atonality

Atonality is defined as the absence of a key.  Often, a tone row is used as a basis of the entire piece.  This is an example of a tone row:

 Fig.2 tone row

  Each of the chromatic notes are in every row.  No importance is given to duration of note, octave, or velocity. We will discuss how to generate a tone row and what each row means in more detail in the Theory lesson.

Part IV - Clusters and Textures
Most often in atonal music, instead of chords clusters are used.  a cluster is just that. a cluster of notes.  Clusters are notated like this:

Fig.3 note cluster

This notation means to play every single note between the outer two notes simultaneously.  This is a very common practice in the twentieth century. 

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.  tertian (from Latin, meaning "of or concerning thirds") describes any piece. chord, counterpoint, etc. constructed from the interval of a (major or minor) third
2. Dissonance- Lack of harmony among musical notes.

Vocal forms

Vocal forms

Part I - Hymns and Traditional songs
The simplest vocal forms are hymns, folk songs, and traditional songs.  They are usually eight to sixteen bars long and use the same music for all verses of text.  This is known as strophic, having mulitple lines of text set to the same music. 

Part II - Popular song
 This is a rather wide categorization that includes jazz, show tunes, rock, country, etc.  They are usually ternary or binary form with eight-bar phrases.  with verse, chorus, verse structure. 
They often take this form:

Intro                  (verse)                      ||:(refrain) Chorus:||
                                  Repeated phrases                                        32-bar song form
V---------------------------------------I---------------HC                           AABA                         coda


Part III - Art song
Art song refers to solo vocal pieces in which existing poetry is set to music.  The art song flourished in the nineteenth century with German lieder and French melodie.  The analysis of art song must include the lyrics to fully understand the formal structure.


Part IV - Da Capo Aria, Ritornello, and Rondo forms
An aria (Italian for 'tune') is a song for solo voice with instrumental accompaniment.  Most arias are found in operas, oratorios, and cantatas. 

Part V - Choral music
Hymns and chorales
The most straightforward works written in parts for multiple voices.  The textures are usually homophonic and often homorhythmic. other textural possibilities include:

1. homophonic
2. unison texture-  where all of the voices sing the melody in unison
3. Call and response- where one voice states a musical idea and the other voices respond
4. melody and descant- in which a descant or countermelody is sung against the other voices.
5. countrapuntal textures- where two or more voices are presented in counterpoint.  
6. antiphonal techniques- in which two choruses alternate

Contrapuntal Genres

Contrapuntal Genres

Part I - Imitation
Imitation is one of the most characteristic techniques of contrapuntal genres.  In music, imitation refers to repeating material in another voice or part at different times.  it is widely used when elaborating musical ideas.
 
Part II - Canon
The canon is one of the oldest forms of imitation techniques in music.  There are two distinct types of canon, Leader and follower, and Round.
  
Leader and Follower
This is where one voice will state the theme and the subsequent voices will state the theme as well while the voices that have already entered will provide accompaniment. 

Round
A round is the simplest type of canon.  A round is a melody sung by voices beginning at different times.  A common example is "Row row row your boat."

Mirror canon
This is where the theme is sung in melodic inversion by each of the followers. 

Retrograde canon
This is where the theme is sung forward and backward simultaneously.  There is no leader and followers.

Mensuration canon
Where one of the followers performs the canon melody in augmentation or diminution. 

Part III - Inventions
A genre unique to Bach's oeuvre is the invention for keyboard.  These collections are teaching manuals in which melodies are "invented" and elaborated by various contrapuntal techniques.  Here the melody is called the "subject"  and all other voices are called the "counter subject." 

Part IV -  Fugue
This will be an introduction to fugues.  We will discuss fugues more in depth in the lessons dealing specifically with counterpoint.  Originally the term fugue was used to describe thirteenth century pieces where voices sung in canonic imitation accompanied by a third voice. 

Subjects and answers
A fugue typically begins with an unaccompanied statement of the theme called the "subject."  Fugue subjects very widely in length from one measure to up to ten measures.  The subsequent entries of the subject will be accompanied by the "counter subject" in the voice that just finished the subject.  Once the subject and counter subject have finished playing, a third voice can enter and play the subject.  a general outline of a fugue looks like this:

Fig.1 Fugue outline

Following all of the entries of the subject and counter subject, there will be "episodes"  of varriation based on the subject in a variety of keys.  After all of the episodes, there will be a closing section where the subject is restated in its entirety in the tonic before a short coda.   

Ostinato and Varriation forms

Ostinato and Variation forms

Part I - Ostinato Vzriations
Ostinato variations are continuous variation over a repeated bass line.  This bass line is referred to as basso Ostinato (Ground bass).   The most famous example of this is Pachelbel's Canon in D,  Which is NOT canon form.

Fig.1 Canon in D ostinato bass 

The Ostinato bass repeats as the harmonic melody changes over the top of it.  A composer can be as unadventurous as to just have variations of   a melody on top of the bass line.  or go as far as to change the mode¹ of themelody over the bass line. 

 ______________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Mode- Any of various fixed orders of the various diatonic notes within an octave.  i.e. Major, minor, etc.


Part II - Ostinato as a constructive device
 The ostinato ovariations prevalent in Baroque  music were replaced by theme and variations  in the late 18th century.  nineteenth century composers often used ostinato figures for effect, or as a compositional device. 

Part III - Theme and Variations
Theme and variation form takes a familiar melody and uses it as a base for the entire piece.  The subsequent variations will play with the melody or the bass line or both to create  totally unique melodies. 

Fixed Form Variations. 
this is a technique that uses the melodic ideas and textures using the form and tonal structure of the theme.

Free Variations
Variations of the nineteenth century often abandoned the theme's formal structure.  Themes were often subject to fragmentation, neaning that the varirations would often not use the entire theme. but rather only part of it to use as a base for the entire variation.  Many composers found free variations attractive because they offered more chance to vary the original theme more widely. 

Part IV -  Organization of Variations
A typical outline of theme and variation looks something like this:

THEME        VAR A           VAR B                VAR C               VAR D             VAR A          VAR E
                                        March              Waltz             Can-can                               Fugue

Notice that theme A keeps recurring throughout the piece.

Rondo form

Rondo form

Part I - Outline of Rondo Form
The general outline of sonata form looks like this: A B A C A B A.  That is, there are three themes that follow this pattern.  Other iterations could look like this: A B A B' A.  The A theme is referred to as the refrain as it happens with the most frequency.  The rondo form is used most often in keyboard suites of the Baroque and Classical periods.  It is also used as the slow finale of piano sonatas, symphonies, and Classical concertos. 

Five part rondo CRK = Closely related key
Refrain 1                    Episode 1                         Refrain 2                Episode 2                    Refrain 3
A                  B                    A              C                  A
Tonic                           CRK                                   Tonic                       CRK                               Tonic 

Seven Part Rondo

 Refrain 1     Episode 1                Refrain 2         Episode 2              Refrain 3            Episode 4              Refrain 4
A           B              A             C          A             B'             A   
Tonic              CRK                       Tonic                      CRK             Tonic                     CRK                      Tonic


Part II - Baroque Rondeau
THe historical precursor to the Classical rondo was the French Rondeau of the Baroque period.  The baroque Rondeau shows these characteristics:

1. The refrain is tonally closed ending in a Perfect authentic cadence in the tonic
2. The refrain is a short self-contained theme.  Usually a ritornello-type phrase of eight measures.
3. Each time the refrain returns in the tonic key and is unaltered.
4. The episodes contain thematic material very closely related to the Refrain.

Part III - Five and Seven-part Rondo
Rondos of the Classical period use the same principles of the Baroque Rondeau but with greater contrasts of themes and textures in episodes.  The refrain is often longer, and could be a short binary or ternary form in its self.  Seven-part rondos are most often used in finales of large works.

Part IV - Sonata Rondo form
The only diference between Rondo form and sonata rondo form is that instead of C,  there is a short development of the themes found in the Refrain and first episode.  So, it would look like this:
Tonic     Dominant    Tonic                            Various                                 Tonic            Tonic      Tonic     
A      B        A      DEVELOPMENT               A         B       A  

Modification of sonata Form and Cyclic Forms

Modification of sonata Form and Cyclic Forms

Part I - Slow introduction
A slow introduction often precedes the exposition of a sonata form.whether  in an overture, on in a movement all of its own.  Slow introductions are heard as separate sections to the entire sonata and rarely do composers use material from the introduction of the sonata. There are exceptions, of course.  They do often introduce ideas or sometimes motives that will be incorporated into the exposition.

Part II - Sonata Form without Development.
Some sonata form movements are constructed in the manner of traditional sonata form but only have a short link between the exposition and the recapitulation.  This is often the case  in opera overtures such as Mozart's The marriage of Figaro. 

Part III - Sonata form in Concerto movements
Most often occurring in  Baroque compositions, ritornello means "return" in Italian.  It is a piece where a soloist will play an exposition, followed by an orchestra playing an expanded form of the same thing that the soloist played.  a basic map of the form would look like this:

Solo¹    Tutti¹       Solo²         Tutti²          Solo³             Tutti<sup>3
 I               I-------V      V-----V              V------------------------------------------------I
NOTE:
Tutti-Litterally translates to "all" from Italian. It is a part of the piece after a soloist plays where the entire ensemble joins.


 Part IV - Cyclic Form
Cyclic form is a multi-movement work that uses the same thematic material in more than one movement is known as a cyclic form work.  This motive that is used in all or most of the movements is known as the Idee Fixe, or Fixed idea. The most famous work with an idee Fixe is Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz.  
Here is the Idee Fixe that Berlioz uses in Symphonie Fantastique:</sup>

^{This theme shows up in some form in every movement of the work.}

Sonata Forms

Sonata Form

General outline of Sonata form

Exposition                        Development           Recapitulation
||: I -------V-------V:||V--------------------------I
Theme I                 Theme II         codetta

Part I - Exposition
 The exposition contains three distinct parts.  Theme one, a transition from theme one to theme two, and theme two.  Sometime, but not often there is a small codetta, but not often.

Theme one is always in the tonic key, the transition modulates to the dominant (V), or relative Major (III),  and the second theme is in the dominant or relative Major.  
The function of the beginning section of a sonata is to introduce thematic ideas as established in the tonic key.  The principal themes can be as short as one measure or as long as twenty.  Whatever the length, the principal theme eands with a cadence.

Transition:

1. Transitions usually reach a half  cadence that normally concludes a prolongation of the dominant key
2. Dominant harmony may be elided into a perfect authentic cadence at the beginning of the secondary theme
3. The accelerated rhythmic activity and changes in texture often signify the beginning of the transition.

The secondart tonal area is often the Dominant of a major key or realtive major of a minor key.
Although it is rare, it is possible to have a non-modulating transition.  That is, the first and second themes are both in the tonic.

Part II - Development
Sonata form is very much based on the elaboration of ideas.  The development is the composer's chance to develop   all of the themes presented in the Introduction.  Often modulating frequently.   Modulation to new keys and tonal instability are basic aspects of the development.

Retransition:
The retransition is found at the end of the development and serves as a gateway back to the tonic where the recapitulation can begin.

Part III - Recapitulation
The recapitulation is the third major section of a sonata.  In the recapitulation, theme one is restated in the tonic, there is a non-modulatory transition between theme one and theme two.  Theme two is presented in the tonic.  Note that theme two is not in the dominant (V), or Mediant (III).  Finally, there is a Coda to finish the piece.

Notice how there is a short into before the first theme begins in measure 5.

Ternary forms

Ternary forms

Part I - Simple Ternary Forms
Ternary forms contain two themes A and B and generally follow this outline:

Section:

A-------------------------------------B------------------------------------------A------------------------------Coda

 Key Area:

I--------------------------------------V------------------------------------------I----------------------------------I

Simple ternary forms are usually found in songs and in sections of larger forms.  Quite often a change in mode marks the beginning of the middle section

 

In this example, the two sections are very clearly heard.  Do note that between the B and second A, there is a transition of 8 bars to modulate back to G minor.

Part II - 32-bar Song form

The three-part division of the form is based on the grouping of the first phrase (A) and its repetition as one section.  This is often referred to as the "head."  The contrasting B section is known as the bridge.  The single eight measure restatement of A without repeat completes the four symmetrical phrases known as a quatrain.

NOTE:

Quatrain - a sixteen measure form of four-measure phrases.

In the tonic key, there will often be a sequential modulating figure that signifies the start of the B section.  

 

This is an example of 32-bar song form.  The antecedent and consequent are very clear and easy to hear.

Part III - Compound Ternary forms

These forms occur in two main styles:  Da cappo form, and large ternary form.

NOTE:

Da Cappo - Literally translates to "to head"  Means to return to the beginning of the piece and end where the sign tells you 

  

In Da cappo form, after the B section is played, the A section is often the only section to be repeated.  

This is an example of Compound ternary.  

Part IV - Large Ternary Form

Found mostly in slow movements of late eighteenth and early nineteenth century works, Large ternary is similar to the compound ternary and the minuet and trio.  In that the first section is a self-contained form ending with a Perfect authentic cadence in the tonic.  Large ternary differs from compound ternary in the following ways:

1. The first section of a slow movement is not always rounded binary with repeats
2. The middle section may be a simple binary or ternary form.  But may not be modulatory.
3. The middle section will often shift modes.
4. The large work will often have links or transitions between movements.
5. The restatement of the A section, unlike the Da capo, is written out and usually  embellished or expanded.

This is the second movement of Haydn's symphony #104

Formal functions and Musical texture

Formal functions and Musical texture

Part I - Formal functions
Six basic functions of phrase structure can  be identified They are:

1. expository
2. transitional
3. delopmental
4. introductory
5. closing
6. parenthetical

Expository function- Expository phrases are those with distinct thematic material.

Transitional phrases- Transitional phrases function as links between expository phrases.  as an example, the transition part of a sonata, which we will talk about tomorrow would be a transitional phrase.

Developmental function- Closely related to the transitional function, this type of phrase does not introduce new material, it just develops material introduced in the expository phrase.

Introductory function- Occurs in passages that initiate a phrase, section, or movement. 

Closing function- Occurs in phrases that bring a section or movement to a final cadence.  often include pedal tones, reiteration of thematic material, and/or rhythmic acceleration or deceleration.

Parenthetical function- contain an unexpected change in tonality, theme, or texture.  It can also contain sudden changes in dynamics.  All of this gives a sense of a parenthetical aside or interjection.

Part II - Musical texture and form
Musical texture refers to the arrangement and quality of sounds in music. 
Types of musical texture:
Monophony- a single line of music.  all voices are moving in unison at the same time.  Gregorian chant is an example of monophony.
Polyphony- Many different lines that are rhythmically pendant of each other and hold equal importance.
Homophony- where the melody is presented in one voice and the other instruments are chordal accompaniment.
Heterophony- contains different elaborations of the same basic melody. 

Phrase Rhythm and phrase structure

Phrase Rhythm and phrase structure

Part I - Phrase Separation and Connection
 an aspect of the continuity of phrases is how and when phrases are separated or connected.  In some cases phrases are rhythmically separated , in others, a separation is implied.  New phrases may also begin when the previous one ends.  at the point of cadential arrival, with an upbeat or anacrusis. 

Note:
Anacrusis- One or more unstressed notes before the first bar line of a piece or passage.

Frequently, phrases are connected together to give a stronger sense of continuity.  The reason and affect of such choices vary according to the style of the music and the context of the phrases.  Phrases are usually connected in one of four basic ways.

1. Elision - The omission of a sound or syllable 
2. Melodic or bass line links
3. continuation of accompaniment
4. overlapping of lines

 An important point to consider is weather the phrase link is heard as a part of the preceding phrase or as an upbeat and a lead-in to the next phrase. 
Phrase overlaps are less frequent than elisions and phrase links, and occur most often in contrapuntal textures.

Part II - Phrase Expansions
 The idea that phrases can be expanded is based on that some parts of the phrase are additions to more basic essential elements. 
Phrase introductions occur in three common forms:

1. Accompaniment figures that initiate a phrase into the entrance of  the phrase melody
2. Motivic anticipations
3. Elongated upbeats

Thematic design and phrase structure

Thematic design and phrase structure

Part I - Thematic design
The 'theme' in music usually refers to the principal melodic lines.   The tonal motion towards cadences is supported by the presentation and completion of thematic ideas.  A phrase is usually notated with a slur:

Fig.1 Slur

Part II - Motives and themes

A musical motive is a short melodic idea categorized by rhythm, contour and interval succession.  a theme is a sequence of motives that make a cohesive whole.  Motivic analysis usually entails the identification of motives and their recurrences.

Part III - Models of Phrase and structure

  A common model of phrase structure is a sentence.  A sentence is a phrase comprised of a statement, followed by a repetition, then a continuation that leads to a cadence.  The three parts of a sentence are normally in the proportions 1:1:2 (in measures) or multiples thereof.  The proportions are the defining characteristic of a sentence.

Another type of phrase is the period.  The first phrase in a period leads to a weak cadence (IAC or HC).  This first part of the period is known as the antecedent.  The second part of the period, known as the consequent, leads to a strong cadence (usually a, AC of some sort.    

Tonal design

Tonal design

Part I - Phrase, Cadence and Key
 Obviously, all three of these aspects of music play an important role when analyzing a piece.  The Phrases are important to know for when the themes begin and end.  most of the time a theme begins as one ends on a phrase.  Themes can last for more than one phrase.  The essentials of tonal design is being able to identify the pattern of cadences and modulations that take place.  Being able to identify key is essential for knowing when modulations occur.  Knowing when modulation occur is helpful for when identifying themes within certain forms. 

Part II - Cadences and segmentation
A cadence refers to the completion of a melodic and harmonic progression.  We've already discussed cadences and the different types of cadences throughout the Music theory lessons.  So I do not need to go into much detail here.  just know that a cadence marks the end of a musical idea.  In this case, it will be a melodic idea.  

references.

soon I will be posting my reference list.  So that you can go out and buy the books yourself.

The nature of musical form

The nature of musical form

Part I - Categories of musical form
 Formal design
The term 'form' refers to the large scale design of a piece of music.  Most pieces can divided into two or three sections.  These sections are often labeled with letters, such as A and B.  A piece with two sections would be known as AB. Or, if the second section is a shortened iteration of the first, it would be AA' (A prime)

Part II - Formal structure
The classification of large-scale works into forms is concerned with the number and grouping of musical ideas.  For example, a piece that has two musical ideas (AB, or ABA), would be a different genre that a piece with three or more musical ideas (ABC, or even ABACABA).

Part III - Formal Processes
Formal Processes - the harmonic progressions including modulations and when and how modulations take place are essential when analyzing a piece

Thematic processes - How themes (melodic ideas) generate phrases and sections of a design. 

Textural process - The texture of a piece (monophonic, Polyphonic, or Homophonic) plays a big role when analyzing a piece.  Usually when the texture changes, the theme changes.

Part IV - Formal Function
This refers to the role of segments of music at various levels of the structure.

Part V - The perception of musical form
Music can not be enjoyed or understood without recourse to  basic knowledge of musical form.  The same can be said for performance.

One part and binary forms

Part I - One-part forms
One-part forms comprise of one single phrase group or period that make the complete piece.  One-part forms are usually instrumental pieces and are very brief.  Characteristics of one-part form include:

1. Continuous harmonic and rhythmic movement until the final cadence
2.  Lack of a perfect authentic cadence until the end.
3. frequent use of elided cadences
4. absence of restatements of the theme in the tonic in following contrasting phrases

One-part form pieces include: etudes, preludes, where the original theme is continuously elaborated.  The Bach Prelude in F Major will serve as an example

 

You can hear that the one theme, although it modulates stays essentially unchanged throughout the entire piece.  

Part II - Binary form
Binary form looks like this:
                                        A                                               B

Fig.1 Binary form structure.

 

 There are three phrases of one theme which is repeated and three phrases of another theme which is also repeated.

In this movement, you can see all of these characteristics of binary form:

1. Repeat signs clearly divide the piece into two sections
2. The first section modulates to the dominant
3. The two sections use similar material.
4. The second section continues to elaborate material that was presented in the first section.
5. No restatement of the opening phrase of section one is heard in section two in the tonic key.

Computer problems

Dearest readers, I fear my computer is dying.  Thus, on a public computer, I do not have access to all of my slides for the remainder of the music theory lessons.  So,  we will embark on a new topic for the time being. 

Until my computerr is fixed and I have access to all of my slides, we will talk about Musical form, and how to analyze various forms.

Lesson 36 review

Beethoven  piano sonata op. 49 no.1

this piece is full of secondary dominants

Schubert Impromptu op. 142 No.3 B flat major

In measures 1-8, there are secondary dominants of the dominant

Mendelssohn Songs Without Words Op.19 No.1

Here, there are many secondary dominants of the dominant

Felix Mendelssohn - Songs without Words - Op.53, No.1

In this piece, there are many secondary dominants of the subdominant

Franz Schubert - Andante in A Major (D. 604)

This piece is full of secondary dominants of the submediant

Schumann Piano Concerto in a minor, Op.54, 2nd & 3rd movements 

This piece modulates using secondary dominants

SCHUMANN, Intermezzo op 4 No 4 

This piece is full of borrowed chords 

Chopin Nocturne in C# minor, op. posth.

Near the end of the piece, there is a borrowed ii°

At the bebining of the piece, there is a German sixth as well.

Chopin prelude, Op.28 No. 20

this piece contains the Neapolitan triad 

Beethoven, Piano Sonata Op. 31, No. 1, 2nd movement

This piece modulates using secondary dominants.

Beethoven Piano sonata Op. 81a 1st movement

This piece contains the Augmented 6th chord